Rotating wave approximation

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The rotating wave approximation is frequently used in quantum optics, usually to simplify problems involving lasers interacting with atoms. The typical situation involves a coherent (classical) laser light field of frequency Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_L} and a two-level atom with resonant frequency Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_0} . Since little will happen if the laser is not near resonance, the interesting case is when Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_L\approx\omega_0} . In this case, terms with the sum frequency Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_L+\omega_0} are discarded under the rotating wave approximation because they oscillate much more quickly than terms with the difference frequency Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_L-\omega_0,} which is approximately zero.

The name of the approximation stems from the form of the Hamiltonian in the interaction picture, where the terms oscillating at the sum and difference frequencies arise (as we will see below). By switching to this picture the evolution of an atom due to the corresponding atomic Hamiltonian is absorbed into the system ket, leaving only the evolution due to the interaction of the atom with the light field to consider. Since it is in this picture that the rapidly-oscillating terms mentioned previously can be neglected and in some sense the interaction picture can be thought of as rotating with the system ket, only that part of the electromagnetic wave that approximately co-rotates is kept; the counter-rotating component is discarded.

Mathematical formulation

For simplicity consider a two-level atomic system with excited and ground states Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\mathrm{e}\rangle} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\mathrm{g}\rangle} respectively (using the Dirac bracket notation). Let the energy difference between the states be Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \hbar\omega_0} so that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_0} is the transition frequency of the system. Then the unperturbed Hamiltonian of the atom can be written as

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_0=\hbar\omega_0|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|}

Suppose the atom is placed at Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle z=0} in an external (classical) electric field of frequency Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \omega_L} , given by Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{E}(z,t)=\vec{E}_0(z)e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\vec{E}_0^*(z)e^{i\omega_Lt}} (so that the field contains both positive- and negative-frequency modes in general). Then under the dipole approximation the interaction Hamiltonian can be expressed as

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_I=-\vec{d}\cdot\vec{E}}

where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{d}} is the dipole moment operator of the atom. The total Hamiltonian for the atom-light system is therefore Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H=H_0+H_I.} The atom does not have a dipole moment when it is in an energy eigenstate, so Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle\mathrm{e}|\vec{d}|\mathrm{e}\rangle=\langle\mathrm{g}|\vec{d}|\mathrm{g}\rangle=0.} This means that defining Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{d}_{\mathrm{eg}}:=\langle\mathrm{e}|\vec{d}|\mathrm{g}\rangle} allows the dipole operator to be written as

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \vec{d}=\vec{d}_{\mathrm{eg}}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}|+\mathrm{H.c.}}

(with `H.c.' denoting the Hermitean conjugate). The interaction Hamiltonian can then be shown to be (see the Derivations section below)

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_I=-\hbar\left(\Omega e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\tilde{\Omega}e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\left(\tilde{\Omega}^*e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\Omega^*e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|}

where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Omega} is the Rabi frequency and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \tilde{\Omega}:=\hbar^{-1}\vec{d}_\mathrm{eg}\cdot\vec{E}_0^*} is the counter-rotating frequency. To see why the Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \tilde{\Omega}} terms are called `counter-rotating' consider a unitary transformation to the interaction or Dirac picture where the transformed Hamiltonian Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \bar{H}} is given by

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \bar{H}=-\hbar\left(\Omega e^{-i\Delta t}+\tilde{\Omega}e^{i(\omega_L+\omega_0)t}\right)|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\left(\tilde{\Omega}^*e^{-i(\omega_L+\omega_0)t}+\Omega^*e^{i\Delta t}\right)|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\ .}

Making the approximation

This is the point at which the rotating wave approximation is made. The dipole approximation has been assumed, and for this to remain valid the electric field must be near resonance with the atomic transition. This means that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Delta\ll\omega_L+\omega_0} and the complex exponentials multiplying Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \tilde{\Omega}} and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \tilde{\Omega}^*} can be considered to be rapidly oscillating. Hence on any appreciable time scale the oscillations will quickly average to 0. The rotating wave approximation is thus the claim that these terms are negligible and the Hamiltonian can be written in the interaction picture as

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \bar{H}_\mathrm{RWA}=-\hbar\Omega e^{-i\Delta t}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\Omega^*e^{i\Delta t}|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\ .}

Finally, in the Schrödinger picture the Hamiltonian is given by

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_\mathrm{RWA}=\hbar\omega_0|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}| -\hbar\Omega e^{-i\omega_Lt}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\Omega^*e^{i\omega_Lt}|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\ . }


At this point the rotating wave approximation is complete. A common first step beyond this is to remove the remaining time dependence in the Hamiltonian via another unitary transformation.


Derivations

Given the above definitions the interaction Hamiltonian is

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_I = -\vec{d}\cdot\vec{E} }
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-\left(\vec{d}_\mathrm{eg}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}|+\vec{d}_\mathrm{eg}^*|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\right) \cdot\left(\vec{E}_0e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\vec{E}_0^*e^{i\omega_Lt}\right) }
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-\left(\vec{d}_\mathrm{eg}\cdot\vec{E}_0e^{-i\omega_Lt} +\vec{d}_\mathrm{eg}\cdot\vec{E}_0^*e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\left(\vec{d}_\mathrm{eg}^*\cdot\vec{E}_0e^{-i\omega_Lt} +\vec{d}_\mathrm{eg}^*\cdot\vec{E}_0^*e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}| }
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-\hbar\left(\Omega e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\tilde{\Omega}e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\left(\tilde{\Omega}^*e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\Omega^*e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\ , }

as stated. The next stage is to find the Hamiltonian in the interaction picture, Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \bar{H}.} The unitary operator required for the transformation is Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle U=e^{iH_0t/\hbar},} and an arbitrary state Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\psi\rangle} transforms to Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle |\bar{\psi}\rangle=U|\psi\rangle.} The Schrödinger equation must still hold in this new picture, so

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \bar{H}|\bar{\psi}\rangle =i\hbar\partial_t|\bar{\psi}\rangle =i\hbar\dot{U}|\psi\rangle+Ui\hbar\partial_t|\psi\rangle =\left(i\hbar\dot{U}+UH\right)|\psi\rangle =\left(i\hbar\dot{U}U^\dagger+UHU^\dagger\right)|\bar{\psi}\rangle\ , }

where a dot denotes the time derivative. This shows that the new Hamiltonian is given by

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \bar{H}=i\hbar\dot{U}U^\dagger+UHU^\dagger =i\hbar\left(\frac{i}{\hbar}UH_0\right)U^\dagger+U(H_0+H_I)U^\dagger =UH_IU^\dagger }
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-e^{i\omega_0t|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|}\left( \hbar\left(\Omega e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\tilde{\Omega}e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| +\hbar\left(\tilde{\Omega}^*e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\Omega^*e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\right) e^{-i\omega_0t|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|} }
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-\hbar\left(\Omega e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\tilde{\Omega}e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)e^{i\omega_0t}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\left(\tilde{\Omega}^*e^{-i\omega_Lt}+\Omega^*e^{i\omega_Lt}\right)|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|e^{-i\omega_0t} }
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-\hbar\left(\Omega e^{-i\Delta t}+\tilde{\Omega}e^{i(\omega_L+\omega_0)t}\right)|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\left(\tilde{\Omega}^*e^{-i(\omega_L+\omega_0)t}+\Omega^*e^{i\Delta t}\right)|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}| }

where Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \Delta:=\omega_L-\omega_0} is the detuning of the light field. The penultimate equality can be easily seen from the series expansion of the exponential map and the fact that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \langle\mathrm{i}|\mathrm{j}\rangle=\delta_\mathrm{ij}} for i and j each equal to e or g (and Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \delta_\mathrm{ij}} the Kronecker delta).

The final step is to transform the approximate Hamiltonian back to the Schrödinger picture. The first line of the previous calculation shows that Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle \bar{H}=UH_IU^\dagger,} so in the same manner as the last calculation,

Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle H_{I,\mathrm{RWA}}=U^\dagger\bar{H}_\mathrm{RWA}U =e^{-i\omega_0t|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|} \left(-\hbar\Omega e^{-i\Delta t}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\Omega^*e^{i\Delta t}|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\right) e^{i\omega_0t|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|}}
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-\hbar\Omega e^{-i\Delta t}e^{-i\omega_0t}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\Omega^*e^{i\Delta t}|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|e^{i\omega_0t}}
Failed to parse (SVG (MathML can be enabled via browser plugin): Invalid response ("Math extension cannot connect to Restbase.") from server "https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/":): {\displaystyle =-\hbar\Omega e^{-i\omega_Lt}|\mathrm{e}\rangle\langle\mathrm{g}| -\hbar\Omega^*e^{i\omega_Lt}|\mathrm{g}\rangle\langle\mathrm{e}|\ . }

The atomic Hamiltonian was unaffected by the approximation, so the total Hamiltonian in the Schrödinger picture under the rotating wave approximation is

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