Shigella dysenteriae

Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Eubacteria;
Phylum:	Proteobacteria;
Class:	Gamma Proteobacteria;
Order:	Enterobacteriales;
Family:	Enterobacteriaceae;
Genus:	Shigella;
Species:	dysenteriae;
Binomial name
	Shigella dysenteriae;

Main Article

Discussion

Description and significance

Describe the appearance, habitat, etc. of the organism, and why it is important enough to have its genome sequenced. Describe how and where it was isolated. Include a picture or two (with sources) if you can find them.

Shigella was discovered over 100 hundred years ago by the Japanese biologist Shiga, which the genus was named after. ^[1] Shigella dysenteriae is gram-negative. Shigella dysenteriae are rod (bacillus) shaped, non-motile, non-spore-forming, facultative anaerobic bacteria. The bacteria is able to survive contaminated environments as well as the acidity of the human gastro-intestinal tract. The accumulation of bacterial Shigella dysenteriae is known to cause a condition known as shigellosis.

Genome structure

Describe the size and content of the genome. How many chromosomes? Circular or linear? Other interesting features? What is known about its sequence? Does it have any plasmids? Are they important to the organism's lifestyle?

Shigella dysenteriae has the smallest genome out of the genus Shigella, which contains three other species. It's genome consists of a single circular chromosome and 4,369,232 base pairs.^[2] It contains one plasmid. Shigella dysenteriae contains genes that code for the invasion of the epithelial cells and the production of Shiga toxin. ^[3] The Shiga toxin is a potent A-B type toxin with 1-A and 5-B subunits. B subunits bind to the cell and inject the A-subunit. By cleaving a specific adenine residue from the 28S ribosomal RNA in the 60S ribosome, the toxin inhibits protein synthesis, causing cell death. ^[4]

Cell structure and metabolism

Describe any interesting features and/or cell structures; how it gains energy; what important molecules it produces

Shigella dysenteriae, produces a Shiga toxin. Shiga toxin is a family of toxins produced by a variety of organisms, including Shigella dysenteriae type I and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli. These toxins have a cytotoxic effect on intestinal epithelial cells that probably causes the characteristic bloody diarrhea. Systemic spread of Shiga toxin causes renal endothelial cell toxicity and may be responsible for Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (reference 7).

Ecology

Describe any interactions with other organisms (included eukaryotes), contributions to the environment, effect on environment, etc.

Shigella dysenteriae can survive in faecally contaminated materials which can include water, foods, and other materials (reference 3). It can be transmitted by person to person contact. It is generally transmitted with the ingestion of water and food contaminated with the bacteria. It can cause foodborne or waterborne epidemics. Shigella infections may be acquired from eating food that has become contaminated by infected food handlers. Vegetables can become contaminated if they are harvested from a field with contaminated sewage or wherein infected field workers defecate. Shigella can also be transmitted by flies. Flies can breed in infected feces and then contaminate food. Shigella infections can be acquired by drinking or swimming in contaminated water. Water may become contaminated if sewage runs into it, or even if someone with shigellosis swims or bathes or, worse, defecates, in it (reference 1). Epidemics are more likely in poorer countries without adequate sanitation and water treatment systems.

Pathology

How does this organism cause disease? Human, animal, plant hosts? Virulence factors, as well as patient symptoms.

Shigella dysenteriae causes shigellosis (bacillary dysentery) in humans. It's also known to cause dysentery in other primates, but not in other animals. The infection can be caused by as little as 10 bacterial cells, whereas as other bacteria requires millions on cells for infection (reference6). The infection begins with the bacteria entering the gastro-intestinal tract attaching itself to the intestinal wall. Following host epithelial cell invasion and penetration of the colonic mucosa, Shigella infection is characterized by degeneration of the epithelium and inflammation of the lamina propria. This results in desquamation and ulceration of the mucosa, and subsequent leakage of blood, inflammatory elements and mucus into the intestinal lumen. Patients suffering from Shigella infection will therefore pass frequent, scanty, dysenteric stool mixed with blood and mucus, since, under these conditions, the absorption of water by the colon is inhibited (reference 1).

Common symptoms of bacillary dysentery include acute bloody diarrhea, abdominal pains and cramps, fever, vomiting, dehydration, and tenesmus (reference 4). The most important complication is hemolytic uremic syndrome, which develops in 5 to 10 percent of patients. Mortality from hemolytic uremic syndrome approaches 5 percent, but up to 30 percent of patients who survive have chronic renal disease (reference 7).

Shigellosis usually resolves on its own in several days, but in smaller children the infection can be more severe, resulting in hospitalization or death. Once a person has become infected, they are not likely to get infected with the particular strain again, due to the bodies ability to produce antibodies. However, they can be reinfected by other types of Shigella (reference 1). Treatment, used generally in more severe cases, includes the application of antibiotics. The antibiotics will kill the bacteria inside the gastrointerstinal tract, shortening its lifespan and therefore shortening the course of the infection (reference 1). Ciprofloxacin and ampicillin are frequently used to treat the infection, however, Shigella dysenteriae is becoming more susceptible to antibiotic resistance than other species in the genus Shigella (reference 6).

Application to Biotechnology

Does this organism produce any useful compounds or enzymes? What are they and how are they used?

Current Research

Enter summaries of the most recent research here--at least three required

1. High Prevalence of Antimicrobial Resistance among Shigella Isolates in the United States Tested by the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System from 1999 to 2002 http://www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?artid=1346809&rendertype=abstract

Recent studies have shown that Shigella dysenteriae, as well as other species within the genus, are becoming significantly more resistance to antibiotics in the United States. This resistance has made cases of infection by Shigella dysenteriae more difficult to treat, especially in children. Shigella are becoming more resistant to treatments which use ampicillin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (TMP-SMX). Shigella isolates were surveyed over a period of four years, and the there was a common trend in increasing rates of resistance to these animicrobial agents. Shigella dysenteriae islates are also developing a resistance to nalidixic acid. It was also found that these resistances were not limited to the United states. Shigella dysenteriae isolates are becoming more resistant to antimicrobial agents in other parts of the world as well.

2. RyhB, an iron-responsive small RNA molecule, regulates Shigella dysenteriae virulence http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17438026?dopt=Abstract

It has been found that Shigella dysenteriae's virulence is regulated by RyhB suppression. The virulence genes that are being repressed by RyhB includes genes which code for the secretion apparatus, its effectors and its chaperones.

3. A Case of Shigellosis with Intractable Septic Shock and Convulsions http://www.nih.go.jp/JJID/60/314.html